Carboniferous Limestone
These limestones are thought to have accumulated in a warm shallow sea that covered the area between 350 and 325 million years ago, when Britain lay much closer to the equator than it does now. The limestones are generally of three types:

1. Shelf limestones

2. Basin limestones

3. Reef limestones

1. Shelf Limestones – these are massive and well bedded, compact, hard and white or grey in colour. They were deposited on a shallow part of the sea (1-2m in depth). It is made up of fragmented pieces of shells and calcareous skeletons of marine organisms and held together by a cement of crystalline calcite. Larger fossils may occur in thick bands of 0.5 metres and consist of crinoids, corals and brachiopods. These are competant rocks (resistant to folding). In the field they are nearly always seen horizontally. It is of a high quality and many of the quarries in the Peak District are in shelf limestone.
   
   
2. Basin limestone – These are much more thinly bedded and the horizons may be separated by shale or mudstone. They have a higher clay content than the shelf limestones and are much darker in colour. They have very few fossils are much more easily folded and are believed to have accumulated in much deeper waters than the shelf limestone.
   
   
3. Reef limestones – These are recognised by their lack of bedding and are white to grey in colour with a rich variety of fossils. They occur as isolated patches within the shelf and basin limestones or as a marginal deposit between the two. They may be 1-2 metres across or occur several hundreds m wide. They are thought o have formed in a similar way to coral reefs in shallow tropical seas. They can form quite spectacular scenery.

References
Peak District National Park Fact Sheet 10 – Environmental Education Service.

Cope, F.W. (1976) ‘Geology Explained in the Peak District’ David and Charles

Simpson, I.M. (1982) ‘The Peak District’ ‘A Field Guide’ Unwin Paperback

Cope, F.W. (1965) ‘The Peak District’ Geologists Assoc. Guide No. 26.

Fossils
The term fossil is applied today to any remains or traces of ancient animal life that lived before the end of the last ‘ice-age’ 10,000 years ago.

Brachiopods (bivalve shells), crinoids (sea-lilies) and corals are the most common fossils found in the Peak District Limestone. In addition you may find goniatites, trilobites and gastropods. They can be found on reef outcrops and in the stones of the limestone walls.

See example of 'Crinoids' pictured.



References
Peak District National Park Fact Sheet 10 – Environmental Education Service.

Limestone Caverns and Caves
This is formed in layers called strata and has cracks called joints. As water seeps through the joints in the limestone it slowly wears away the rock making tunnels and chimneys. Eventually caverns are formed. As the water finds new cracks to enter it may cease to follow the established ways and leave behind a dry cavern, which flood in times of high rainfall.

As water drips from the roof of the cavern it leaves behind a deposit of limestone. Eventually these deposits build up to form stalactites. As the water splashes onto the ground a similar deposit builds up and forms stalagmites. Where the water flows down the wall it may form a curtain. Other types of very fine stalactites are called straws.

Minerals
Fluorite (the old miners' name for which was Flourspar) often forms in cubic crystals and is usually grey, yellow or purple in colour. It used to be mined mainly for iron smelting but now has many other uses including toothpaste. One form unique to the Peak District National Park is banded purple and yellow or grey and is known as Blue John.

Galena is the chief ore of lead and it can also contain silver, (silver is an impurity of lead sulphide). It is heavy to handle and has a silvery-grey appearance. The crystals are cubic but are often tiny and not easily seen.

Calcite (known to the old miners as spar) is often milky or clear (in this region) and the crystals can take many forms. It's internal structure is Rhombohedral so that it breaks in rhomboids but the common form of crystals in the Peak District in one called 'dog's tooth spar". It is mined for building purposes.

References
Mineral extraction in the National Park, Fact Sheet 11. Peak District National Park Education Service.

Lead Rakes
A rake is a rocky trench which has been cut through fields in a straight line in search of minerals. Lead mining reached its peak in the 17th Century (1750-1850), although it has been mined in the Peak District since Roman times. Galena occurred in long ‘rakes’ and the end result was a landscape bearing the spoil heaps of this industry. Lead is toxic to most plants and the vegetation is very characteristic, even the older mounds seldom get grassed over and many have just one or two species associated with them, few species thrive on ‘Rakes’ they are spring sandwort and where there is less lead mountain pansy and wild thyme.

Quarries
Limestone has been quarried in the Peak District since Roman times for use as building stone and in making mortar and cement. There is a national need for limestone from this area as it is of such a high quality. It was also used in agriculture and lime burning for use on land (mentioned in 1521). Lime kilns used to be a familiar sight in the Peak District. It was also used in lead smelting. during the 20th Century the amount quarried increased from 1.5 million tonnes in 1951 to 8.2 million tonnes in 1991, since when it has decreased (1995 6 million tonnes). As more aggregate were needed for road making. there are 12 main active quarries in the park. There are significant environmental impacts caused by quarrying – noise, disturbance, scars on the landscape, air pollution, transport. There are fewer quarries in the park now although they are larger they help to reduce the impact on the landscape overall.

References
Mineral extraction in the National Park, Fact Sheet 11. Peak District National Park Education Service.

Ecology of quarries – The importance of Natural vegetation, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology ITE Symposium No.11 Edited by B.N.K .Davis. 1981.

Matlock Bath
John Betjeman wrote of the Derbyshire Peak National Park:

Limestone Plateau
The limestone plateau is almost entirely pasture land, the traditional permanent pastures ‘leys’ are being rapidly replaced by seeded pastures which are much poorer in their range of plant species. Low intensity farming in the past has allowed a wide range of plants and animals to develop – but increasingly marginal land is being improved and the fields are being worked in a more intensive way to the general detriment of the wildlife present. Much of the plateau is covered by a layer of loess (wind blown sands, gravels and clays from the time of the last glacial retreat and of continental origin) often to a depth of 2 metres which causes the soil to be acidic rather than alkaline as might be expected! For this reason farmers still have to lime soils on a limestone bedrock! Alkaline limestone derived soils are Rendzinas (dry and alkaline with a humus layer).The decline of the Lapwing may well be one example of this change. The grasslands are grazed by sheep and cattle and cut for hay or silage. Sheep are more hardy than cattle and can remain outdoors all year round. Cattle must be taken in during the winter and then fed on hay or silage.

Silage is fermented grass: the sward is cut and may be allowed to lie and wilt for up to a day before it is either put into silage clamps or plastic bags (big bag silage) to ferment. Swards tend to be resown with productives ryegrasses for this purpose. In some areas landowners are farming in a more environmentally sensitive way through schemes and special agreements.

References
Peak District National Park Fact Sheet 3 and 6.

Stone Walls
Stone walls dominate the limestone plateau and are very much a feature associated with the Peak District National Park. During the enclosures of the 17th and 18th Centuries limestone boulders from the surface of the ground were removed to build dry tone walls (300 years ago there would have been few or no stone walls!)

Birds of the Limestone

Dippers Herons Kingfisher Moorhen Coot Grey Wagtail Redstart Green Woodpecker Tawny Owl Tree Creeper Lapwing Curlew Wheatear

A Dipper

References
Regional wildlife of the Peak District – Paul Sterry

Dales
These have been formed through the action of the water eroding the limestone. They are composed of several different habitats.

The cliffs are called scars and the loose rocks and stones on the slopes scree. The steep slopes are cloaked either in herb rich grassland, hawthorn and hazel scrub, or woodland. The bottom of the dale may contain a river and water meadows, many of which are dry in summer.

Many of the limestone dales are grazed by sheep and rabbits, this results in development of a short turf mainly sheeps fescue. Where there is a reduction in grazing pressure taller growing grasses, of which the commonest upright brome and heath false-brome, become dominant.

The composition of the vegetation in the limestone dales is a result of a delicate relationship with the grazing animals, reduction of the grazing pressure allows colonisation by broad-leaved plants and eventually shrubs such as Hawthorn and Hazel.

In some areas heavy trampling or disturbance of the soil does not enable the tall grass competitors to form a closed sward. In such areas small plants such as Rock Rose and Common Eyebright are abundant.

Xerophytic Adaptations
Xerophytes are plants which have adapted to survive for extended periods during which little water is available. A well known feature is their erratic nature or rare flowering periods, particularly common with succulents. Such adaptations may include waxy or hairy leaves, sunken stomata or small leaf surface area.

Flowers of the White Peak
Rock Rose
Mountain Pansy
Harebell
Cowslip
Spotted Orcid
Herb robert
Wild Thyme
Biting
Stonecrop
Wallpepper
Spring Cinquefoil
Meadow Cranesbill
Shing Cranesbill
Ramsons
Lesser Celandine
Red Campion
Dogs Mercury
Bur-Reed
Marsh Marigold
Pondweed
Water Forget-me-not

References
Paul sterry, regional wildlife of the Peak District

River Life
Most of the water in the rivers of the white peak are clean and free from pollution and support a rich diversity of life. Insects have adapted to cling to rocks in the more turbulent rivers and in addition you may find Stonefly larvae, Mayfly larvae and Caddis fly. Trout are well camouflaged and can be seen lying still head to the current waiting for passing insects.

Slope Aspect and Vegetation
In dales which are on an east-west axis, there are considerable physical differences between the north and south facing slopes. studies have been carried out which demonstrate these differences, basically conditions on the south facing slopes are warmer and the soil more alkaline, the greater air temperature and soil temperature combine with very thin alkaline soil to produce conditions ideal for supporting a rich diversity of species.

The cooler north facing slopes generally have a lower air temperature and soil temperature (about 5°C lower on average than the south facing slope). The soil also tends to be more acidic.

Special Agreements

Special Protected Areas (SPAs)
EU Directive on the conservation of wild birds (1979) recognised Europe has a duty to protect a range of breeding and feeding grounds for migrating birds and other threatened bird species.

English Nature (EN) is responsible for identifying British sites of international importance, and for encouraging landowners to enter into voluntary agreements to manage their SPAs to ensure the protection of the habitat

Special Areas of Conservation
EU habitats directive developed after 1992 ‘Rio’ Earth Summit. It aims to protect unique and special wildlife of Europe, particularly rare and vulnerable species and habitats and ensure their survival for future generations to enjoy.
Proposed SACs in UK include SSSIs, chosen as best examples of listed habitats and species occurring in this country. Identified by EN, the same conditions apply as for SPAs.

SSSIs
1949 areas of land of high wildlife conservation value can be designated by English Nature.
Landowners must notify EN before carrying out any potentially damaging changes. EN may seek management agreements to encourage landowners to manage land in the best interests of its wildlife, but uptake is voluntary.

Environmentally Sensitive Areas
An ESA is an area where farming methods have helped to create the landscape and valuable wildlife habitats which are vulnerable to change.
North Peak ESA established 1988 and covers much of the moorlands –10 yr voluntary agreement linked to a special grant scheme.

Countryside Stewardship Scheme
CS helps to maintain and restore traditional habitats and protect historical features. MAFF encourages farmers to sustain traditional practices by paying incentives for 10 years - payments for walling and tree planting.

Sheep Annual Premium Scheme
This is a support payment for all EU sheep producers, designed to raise the income of sheep farmers to an acceptable level. It is paid on breeding ewes, although there are limits on the number of ewes each farmer can claim. It is currently set at £25/ewe for upland farmers.

Less Favoured Areas (LFAs)
Set up in 1975 EU can designate areas in danger of depopulation and where conservation of the countryside is necessary. It recognises that some farming activities are more appropriate given the climate, environment or conservation needs. Most of the upland of Britain has been designated as LFAs. It means that farmers qualify for higher rates of grant than those in the lowlands and receive top up headage payments for breeding ewes through Hill Livestock Compensatory Allowances. The payments are to make it possible for farming to continue in these less favoured areas. They are currently set at £5.75/ewe for hill breeds.

National Nature Reserves
NNRs are managed by English Nature to conserve nationally important examples of habitats, flora, fauna or geology. Derbyshire Dales NNR is made up of parts of 5 scattered limestone dales. All have public paths through them.

Calcicoles and Calcifuges
Some plants are restricted to growing on an alkaline soil, these plants are termed “calicoles” (Latin calci –‘lime’, cole – ‘I live’). Plants which grow on acid soils and never on alkaline soils are termed califuges (Latin calci –‘lime’, fuge – ‘I flee’).

Although calicoles grow mainly on an alkaline soil, their range throughout the country is dependant upon the climatic conditions which prevail. Some plants are able to endure a considerable climatic variation. Plants such as Common Birdsfoot Trefoil and Horseshoe Vetch are found growing just as well on the limestone of the North of England as they do on the chalk of the south.

Other plants are more exacting. Globe flower is only found in the much wetter conditions of the Pennines, whereas the Maidenhair Fern cannot withstand much frost and is thus restricted to the South west of England and the West coast of Ireland.

Limestone Woodland
The alkaline soils of the limestone area produce woodland in which the major native tree species are Ash and Wych Elm. Hazel and Hawthorn generally comprise the shrub layer.
Both Beech and Sycamore are alien to the Peak District, the former is a native of the chalk downs of the south of England, but Sycamore, which is native to southern Europe, is now being removed from several of the dales which are designated as National Nature Reserves (NNRs). this is because it has a detrimental effect on the ground vegetation and the local insect population. Nuthatches, Woodpeckers, several Warbler and Finches are common amongst the limestone woodlands.

Hay Meadows Project
(Helen Buckingham, Jane Chapman and Rebekah Newman).

In 1994 the Hay Meadows Project was set up to try and conserve as many remaining flower rich hay meadows as possible in the Peak District National Park. 959 meadows were surveyed between 1995 and 1997. Only 125 (13%) were found to be A quality and 285 (30%) of B quality.

Project Conclusions
The project revealed a 76% loss or decline in the conservation value in the flower rich meadows. Unprotected meadows re-surveyed in 1998 showed a further 25% decline in quality since the mid 1990’s. Flower-rich meadows continue to decline at an alarming rate.

The project has shown that more changes to targeting and funding of existing agri-environment schemes are still needed. They are, however, still only a first stage in securing the long-term survival of threatened habitats as all schemes are time limited.
If a fundamental and wide ranging improvement in haymeadow conservation is to be achieved, we urgently need to seek a number of changes:

• A national shift from production-related pressures;
  
• A closer integration of agricultural and conservation objectives;
  More emphasis on environmental cross-compliance and benefits within the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy;
  
• A recognition by Government that unimproved species rich grasslands, which are often of considerable historic, wildlife and landscape value, deserves protection;
  
• A recognition of the value and vulnerability of non-designated sites by bodies funding land purchase;
  
• Increased targeting by conservation bodies of our most vulnerable wildlife habitats and species, not just the rarest and most important;
  
• Substantial action at national level will be urgently required if the Government is to come anywhere near fulfilling the recently published National Biodiversity Action Plan targets for hay meadows, given continuing alarming losses (Anon.1998).

The UK Biodiversity Group sets objectives and targets for the conservation, restoration and expansion of hay meadows, with the Ministry of Agriculture acting as the lead agency for the plan. These include securing favourable conditions over 30% of the resource by2005 and as near to 100% as is practicable by 2015. The Peak District Hay Meadows Project achieved conservation of 36% of known hay meadows. If this project is in any ways typical, then similar resources would be needed nation-wide in order to achieve this 30% target by 2005. Without such action these treasured places will be lost forever.

The full report, entitled Meadows Beyond the Millennium – the future for Hay Meadows in the Peak District National Park, is available at a price of £10.50 from the Farm & Countryside Service, Peak District National Park authority, Aldern House, Baslow Road, Bakewell, Derbyshire, DE45 1AE. Tel: 01629 816270.

References
Anon 1994 The Lowland Grassland Management handbook, English Nature, Wildlife Trusts

Anon 1998 UK Biodiversity Action Plan, UK Biodiversity Group

Fuller, R M 1987 The Changing Extent and Conservation Interest of Lowland Grasslands in England and Wales: A review of grassland surveys 1930-1984. Biological Conservation 40: 281-300

Reed, S 1995 Factors limiting the distribution and population size of Twite in the Pennines. Naturalist 120: 93-101

Rodwell, J S 1992 British Plant Communities Volume 3, grasslands and montane communities. Cambridge University Press